Successful surgical treatment of impending paradoxical embolism with pulmonary embolism and myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: Paradoxical embolism is a rare cause of acute arterial occlusion. This phenomenon arises when embolic material travels from the venous system crosses an abnormal shunt such as patent foramen ovale, atrial septal defects, ventricular septal defects, or pulmonary arteriovenous malformations, into the arterial system. Impending paradoxical embolism refers to the presence of an entrapped thrombus in the patent foramen ovale. CASE PRESENTATION: We report a case of a 68-year-old female patient who presented with an impending paradoxical embolism, alongside both concomitant pulmonary embolism and myocardial infarction with ST-segment elevation. Swiftly addressed through emergency cardiac surgery and systemic anticoagulation, the patient's condition was effectively treated. CONCLUSIONS: While the ideal treatment strategy for impending paradoxical embolism remains a topic of debate due to limited and inconclusive evidence, emergent open surgery should be contemplated in patients as it signifies a critical clinical emergency.

Modified Risk of Paradoxical Embolism More Effectively Evaluates the Risk of Stroke Associated with Patent Foramen Ovale.

BACKGROUND: Through an analysis of the risk factors associated with patent foramen ovale (PFO)-related stroke (PS), we aimed to modify the Risk of Paradoxical Embolism (RoPE) to assess the risk of PS. METHODS: A retrospective collection of ischemic stroke (IS) patients with PFO admitted to the Department of Neurology at Beijing Chaoyang Hospital was conducted. The patients were classified into PS and non-PS groups. PS risk factors and RoPE scoring were analyzed based on clinical data, laboratory indicators, and imaging data. Independent risk factors were incorporated into the RoPE scoring system for enhancement. RESULTS: Significant differences were observed between the two groups regarding total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), and uric acid levels. The transverse diameter of the left atrium was significantly larger in the non-PS group compared to the PS group. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that higher LDL-C levels and a smaller transverse diameter of the left atrium increased the risk of PS. The modified RoPE score was derived by assigning 1 point each for high LDL-C levels and the absence of transverse diameter enlargement in the left atrium. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for the classical and modified RoPE score distinguishing PS were 0.661 and 0.798, respectively. CONCLUSION: LDL-C levels and transverse diameter of the left atrium were identified as independent risk factors for PS. The modified RoPE scoring system exhibited superior performance in assessing the risk of PS compared to the original RoPE score.

[Thromboembolic diseases from a cardiological point of view]. / Thromboembolische Erkrankungen aus kardiologischer Sicht.

Thromboembolic disease is associated with a high mortality. It can be divided into two groups: embolism from a venous and embolism from an arterial side. This article gives an overview on thromboembolic disease (with a focus on pulmonary embolism and ischemic stroke) from a cardiologist's perspective.The therapeutic options for acute pulmonary embolism range from anticoagulation to fibrinolysis to interventional recanalization and surgery. The deciding factor for choice of therapy is the risk of early death. Besides clinical parameters, laboratory markers like cardiac troponin and right ventricular function on echocardiography or CTPA (computed tomography pulmonary angiography) are used to determine the early mortality risk. In hemodynamically instable patients, immediate thrombolysis is required, whereas patients with intermediate and low risk can be treated with anticoagulation. Interventional recanalization is currently being studied in patients at risk for development of CTEPH (chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension) or an intermediate risk of early mortality.In ischemic stroke, early interdisciplinary workup involving a cardiologist is paramount. Post stroke screening should include monitoring for arrythmias (especially atrial fibrillation) and transthoracic echocardiography as well as sonography of extra- and intracranial arteries. If no embolic source can be detected (embolic stroke of undetermined source), transesophageal echo can be helpful to detect intracardiac shunts like patent foramen ovale (PFO) or intracardiac tumors. Post stroke care includes secondary prevention measures like risk factor modification and lipid lowering therapy as well as anticoagulation. In high risk for paradoxical embolization, interventional PFO closure can be performed. Interventional closure of the left atrial appendage (LAA) can be discussed in patients with both high thromboembolic and bleeding risk.

Saddle Pulmonary Embolus and Simultaneous Common Carotid and Subclavian Artery Emboli.

A patent foramen ovale (PFO) is present in 27-35% of the population. Right to left cardiac shunts predispose patients to arterial emboli in the presence of venous thromboembolisms. Paradoxical embolus should be suspected in patients with deep venous thrombosis (DVT) and arterial emboli. A 45-year-old man with hypercoagulability and history of DVT presented with a week-long history of chest pain, shortness of breath, and left arm numbness. Imaging showed a saddle pulmonary embolus (PE) and emboli involving the aortic arch, left common carotid, and left subclavian artery. The patient proceeded with an endovascular thrombectomy of the pulmonary artery, followed by open thrombectomy. Echocardiogram confirmed a right to left intra-cardiac shunt consistent with a PFO. Paradoxical emboli are rare manifestations of venous thromboemboli in patients with right to left intra-cardiac shunts. Patients should be evaluated for these to help prevent further manifestations.

Cervical Artery Dissection and Patent Foramen Ovale in Juvenile Stroke: Causality or Casuality? A Familiar Case Report.

Cervical artery dissection (CAD) and Patent Foramen Ovale (PFO) are important causes of stroke in young patients. Although PFO is considered an independent risk factor for cerebral infarction in young adults with cryptogenic stroke, other concomitant causes may be necessary to cause brain injury. PFO could be a predisposing factor of stroke through several mechanisms including paradoxical embolism from a venous source, thrombus formation in atrial septum, or atrial arrhythmias causing cerebral thromboembolism. The pathophysiology of CAD is poorly understood and includes both constitutional and environmental factors. A causal association is often difficult to establish, as other predisposing factors may also play a role in CAD etiopathogenesis. We present a family with ischemic stroke (a father and his three daughters), in which the two different stroke causes are present. We hypothesized that a paradoxical embolism caused by PFO, associated with arterial wall disease, in the presence of a procoagulant state, could produce arterial dissection and then stroke.

When a Hypersomnolent Hemodialyzed Patient Actually Has a Rare Stroke: A Case of Artery of Percheron Infarction With Paradoxical Embolism.

INTRODUCTION: Artery of Percheron (AOP) is an uncommon anatomic variant of the arterial supply of the medial thalami. Owing to variable clinical presentation, challenging imaging diagnosis, and its rarity, it is difficult to diagnose AOP infarctions. We present a clinical case of a unique presentation of AOP infarction associated with paradoxical embolism and highlight the atypical clinical manifestations and challenging diagnosis of this stroke syndrome. CASE REPORT: A 58-year-old White female with chronic renal insufficiency on hemodialysis was admitted to our center with a 10-hour course of hypersomnolence and right-sided ataxia. She had normal body temperature, blood pressure, peripheral oxygen saturation, and heart rate and scored 11 points in the Glasgow Coma Scale and 12 points in National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale. Initial brain computerized tomography scan, electrocardiogram, and thoracic radiography were normal; transcranial Doppler ultrasound showed >50% stenosis at the P2 segment of the right posterior cerebral artery, and transthoracic echocardiogram, a patent foramen ovale and thrombus adherent to the hemodialysis catheter. On day 3, she underwent brain magnetic resonance that showed acute ischemic lesions at the paramedian thalami and the superior cerebral peduncles. AOP infarction due to a paradoxical embolism from a patent foramen ovale with a right atrial thrombus was the final diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: AOP infarctions are a rare type of stroke with elusive clinical presentations and frequently, initial imaging assessment is normal. Early recognition is crucial, and a high index of suspicion is needed to suspect this diagnosis.

[Ischemic stroke associated with patent foramen ovale: hospital database analysis]. / Ishemicheskii insul't, assotsiirovannyi s otkrytym oval'nym oknom: analiz dannykh gospital'nykh registrov.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze clinical and instrumental characteristics of patients with ischemic stroke (IS) due to paradoxical embolism according to the data of hospital registers of Moscow and Perm. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A comprehensive study of 114 patients, aged 18 to 55 years, with IS by the mechanism of paradoxical embolism was carried out. All patients underwent clarification of the cause of IS (electrocardiography, ultrasound scanning of the brachiocephalic arteries, CT or MRI of the brain, CT or MR angiography, transthoracic and/or transesophageal echocardiography). The presence of right-left shunt blood flow (RLS) was confirmed by transcranial dopplerography with a bubble test. The clinical significance of patent foramen ovale (PFO) was assessed according to The PFO-Associated Stroke Causal Likelihood Classification System (PASCAL). RESULTS: Clinical and instrumental characteristics of patients with IS due to paradoxical embolism were obtained from two hospital registries. In both groups, the leading trigger for the development of IS was the Valsalva phenomen (>20%), the share of other provoking factors did not exceed 10%. Significant differences between the analyzed groups related to the ultrasonic characteristics of RLS/PFO: patients with a grade 4 shunt predominated in the Research Center of Neurology (RCN) population, while patients with a grade 3 shunt predominated in the City Clinical Hospital (CCH) №4 group. At the same time, there were twice as many patients with aneurysm of the interatrial septum in the CCH №4 group. In accordance with the PASCAL classification, in 93% of RCN patients, PFO can be considered as a probable cause of IS, while in the CCH No. 4 group, a probable causal relationship was traced only in 51% of cases, in 18% of patients, the role of an anomaly in the development of stroke was unlikely. CONCLUSION: The analysis showed that the primary screening of RLS in a regional vascular center allows classifying PFO as a probable cause of IS in only half of the patients. For a more accurate selection of patients for whom endovascular occlusion of the PFO will be most effective, an in-depth examination in a specialized hospital is recommended.

Venous thromboembolism with renal infarct due to paradoxical embolism.

Paradoxical thromboembolism has variable presentation depending on site of embolisation. An African-American man in his 40s presented with severe abdominal pain, watery stools and exertional dyspnoea. At presentation, he was tachycardic and hypertensive. Labwork showed elevated creatinine with unknown baseline. Urinalysis showed pyuria. A CT scan was unremarkable. He was admitted with working diagnosis of acute viral gastroenteritis and prerenal acute kidney injury and supportive care was instituted. On day 2, the pain migrated to left flank. Renal artery duplex ruled out renovascular hypertension but showed a lack of distal renal perfusion. MRI confirmed a renal infarct with renal artery thrombosis. Transoesophageal echocardiogram confirmed a patent foramen ovale. Simultaneous arterial and venous thrombosis require hypercoagulable workup, including investigation for malignancy, infection or thrombophilia. Rarely, venous thromboembolism can directly cause arterial thrombosis by 'paradoxical thromboembolism'. Given the rarity of renal infarct, high index of clinical suspicion is necessary.

Transcatheter Patent Foramen Ovale Closure in Patients With Transient Ischemic Attack.

Limited data exist on patients with a transient ischemic attack (TIA) who underwent patent foramen ovale (PFO) closure. The objectives of this study were to determine the clinical and procedural characteristics and long-term outcomes of patients with TIA who underwent transcatheter PFO closure. This was a multicenter study including 1,012 consecutive patients who underwent PFO closure after a cerebrovascular event. Patients were divided into 2 groups according to their index event leading to PFO closure: TIA (n = 183 [18%]), and stroke (n = 829 [82%]). The median follow-up was 3 (2 to 8) years (complete in 98% of patients). There were no significant differences between patients with TIA and stroke, except for a lower Risk of Paradoxical Embolism score in the TIA group (6.1 vs 6.9 in the stroke group, p <0.001). PFO closure was successful in all patients with a low rate of complications (<1%) in both groups. There were no differences in the incidence of neurologic events during long-term follow-up. There was 1 stroke event in the TIA group and 6 in the stroke group (0.08 vs 0.17 per 100 patients-years, p = 0.584). There were 2 TIA events in the TIA group and 10 in the stroke group (0.17 vs 0.28 per 100 patients-years, p = 0.557). In conclusion, our study showed that patients with TIA who underwent PFO closure have similar clinical characteristics as patients with stroke including a high Risk of Paradoxical Embolism score. Furthermore, these results suggest that PFO closure procedural results and long-term clinical outcomes are similar to their stroke counterparts, with a very low incidence of recurrent neurologic events. Further prospective randomized clinical trials are needed on this population.

Patent foramen ovale: diagnostic evaluation and the role of device closure.

Although seemingly benign, the presence of a patent foramen ovale (PFO) may play an important role in the pathophysiology of disease, specifically a paradoxical embolism leading to cryptogenic stroke. The European Society of Cardiology recently published guidelines detailing how PFOs are associated with paradoxical embolism and how they are diagnosed and managed. This review guides physicians in the diagnostic and referral process to a multidisciplinary team involved in PFO closure. It reviews the clinical trials comparing device closure with medical therapy and highlights the current NHS England commissioning process on PFO management. Finally, we give an overview of other conditions where PFO device closure may need to be considered.

Multimodality imaging approach of patent foramen ovale: Practical considerations for transient ischemic attack/stroke.

A patent foramen ovale, which is present in up to 25% of the population, is a risk factor for cryptogenic stroke (which accounts for 15%-40% of strokes) and transient ischemic attack via paradoxical embolism. This narrative review focuses on the multimodality imaging approach of the diagnosis and periprocedural guidance of patent foramen ovale, with an emphasis on the use of agitated saline as contrast medium in echocardiography, starting from embryologic aspects. Therefore, we aimed to make a concise and complete presentation of the protocol used for this type of evaluation, along with multimodality imaging approach of the patent foramen ovale and practical considerations for transient ischemic attack/stroke.

Active paradoxical and pulmonary emboli in a first trimester pregnancy.

Capturing a paradoxical embolism in real-time has been a challenge in recent literature. We present the unique case of a 33-year-old, G3P2 female at 8 weeks gestation presenting with dyspnea. An active thrombus through an undiagnosed patent foramen ovale was found requiring emergent surgical intervention with a positive outcome. The presence of a deep vein thrombosis, inferior vena caval thrombus, patent foramen ovale, and pulmonary artery thrombi was contemporarily documented. To our knowledge, there is minimal literature with this presentation.

Pulmonary embolism and renal artery thrombosis in a patient with patent foramen ovale.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Paradoxical embolism is a rare condition in which a thrombus migrates from the venous system to the arterial circulation, usually through a patent foramen ovale (PFO). Pulmonary embolism (PE) and isolated occlusion of one renal artery has been seldom reported. METHODS: We describe a case of a 47-year old white man with a one-month history of exertional dyspnea who was admitted to our hospital for  severe pain in the right lumbar region. RESULTS: A computed tomography showed  PE and a thrombotic occlusion of the right renal artery. A trans-thoracic echocardiogram documented a PFO with right to left shunt. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and venous compression ultrasonography of the lower extremities were normal. Therapeutic anticoagulation was started. CONCLUSIONS: Pulmonary embolism and thrombotic occlusion of one renal artery is a rare manifestation of paradoxical embolism. Exertional dyspnea is an atypical manifestation of PE and can delay the diagnosis.

Acute neurological deficit with submassive pulmonary emboli.

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is frequently encountered in the emergency department. Syncope, often as a consequence of impending haemodynamic collapse, is associated with increased mortality. While loss of consciousness owing to cerebral hypoperfusion and reduced left ventricular preload is a common cause of collapse with large volume PE, other syndromes can also cause neurological deficit in thromboembolic disease. Here, we describe a case of a woman in her 60s, presenting to the emergency department with features of high-risk PE. During clinical examination, the patient collapsed and became unresponsive with a Glasgow Coma Scale of 4/15 despite normal haemodynamics. Neurological signs were noted and CT revealed evidence of a large territory cerebral infarction. Further cardiovascular investigations identified a grade 4 patent foramen ovale. We describe a challenging case of established venous thromboembolism complicated by paradoxical embolism, highlighting the importance of thorough clinical examination and investigation and discuss the current evidence base of treatments.

Intracardiac versus extracardiac shunt in a young man with ischaemic stroke.

A 24-year-old man with a history of recent ischaemic stroke was diagnosed with patent foramen ovale (PFO) and referred for closure at our hospital. At admission, besides low peripheral oxygen saturation (88%), physical examination was otherwise normal. We performed intraprocedural transoesophageal echocardiogram that revealed no PFO, although agitated saline injection demonstrated bubbles lately on the left atrium. The atrial septum could not be crossed. We suspected an extracardiac shunt, so pulmonary angiograms were performed that revealed the presence of a left pulmonary arteriovenous malformation (PAVM). A Konar-MF Occluder was used to occlude the PAVM, with a satisfactory result. At 6 months follow-up, the patient had normal peripheral oxygen saturation and a new pulmonary angiogram showed no residual shunt. Intrapulmonary shunts are a rare and under-recognised cause of paradoxical emboli in young patients; physicians should be aware of this diagnosis as percutaneous occlusion is indicated and critical to avoid recurrent ischaemic episodes.

Simultaneously Occurring Ischemic Stroke, Leg Artery Occlusion, and Pulmonary Embolism Induced by a Uterine Myoma.

OBJECTIVES: Paradoxical embolism from venous thrombosis through the patent foramen ovale is a rare but well-known cause of stroke in young adults. Here, we report a case of simultaneous middle cerebral artery infarction, multiple occlusions of the leg arteries, and pulmonary thromboembolism from the venous thrombus, all due to compression of the external iliac vein by a uterine leiomyoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS (CASE PRESENTATION): A 44-year-old woman presented with left hemiparesis and central-type left facial palsy. She denied a history of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, previous cerebral infarction, myocardial infarction, smoking, or oral contraceptive use. The patient recovered completely after injection of tissue plasminogen activator. Brain diffusion-weighted imaging showed an acute right middle cerebral artery infarction. Transcranial Doppler with saline agitation test revealed a right-to-left shunt, suggesting a patent foramen ovale. Chest computed tomography revealed multiple pulmonary thromboembolisms. Lower extremity sonography and lower extremity computed tomography revealed a multifocal thrombus in the major veins and arteries of the left leg. Moreover, a large uterine myoma compressing the left external iliac vein was noted on lower extremity computed tomography. RESULTS: After the treatment of pulmonary thromboembolism and venous thrombosis with rivaroxaban, surgical thrombectomy of the left popliteal artery, patent foramen ovale closure, and total hysterectomy were performed. Subsequently, she had no recurrent paradoxical embolism or pulmonary thromboembolism. CONCLUSION: Structural abnormalities in the pelvic cavity are not commonly suspected as stroke etiology. However, examination of the pelvic cavity is advisable in young female stroke patients with pulmonary thromboembolism or other paradoxical embolisms.

Orientation of the Atrial Septum to the Inferior Vena Cava May Contribute to the Persistent Patency of the Foramen Ovale.

PURPOSE: There is growing evidence that paradoxical embolism through patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a cause for cryptogenic stroke. However, it is still unclear why the foramen ovale fails to close after birth. We studied whether the 3D relations between the atrial septum (AS) and the inferior vena cava (IVC) are associated with PFO. METHODS: We recruited 30 patients (18-49 years) with a first-ever cryptogenic stroke and 30 age- and sex-matched stroke-free controls. Using cardiac magnetic resonance, an approach to evaluate the 3D relations between the AS and the IVC was developed. The presence of interatrial right-to-left shunt was evaluated with transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) in patients and transcranial Doppler in controls. RESULTS: Of 30 patients, 29 underwent successful TEE, of which 12 (41%) had a shunt. Patients with a shunt had a greater mean 3D angle (γ) between the atrial septal plane and the vector from the orifice of the IVC to the middle of the AS compared with patients without a shunt (45 ± 9° vs. 36 ± 8°, p = 0.017). Of 30 controls, 12 (40%) had a shunt and a greater mean γ compared with controls without a shunt (47 ± 8° vs. 37 ± 10°, p = 0.007). In a pooled analysis, 24 (41%) of 59 subjects with a shunt had a mean γ of 46 ± 9° compared with subjects without a shunt of 37 ± 9° (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: More perpendicular orientation of the atrial septal plane to the orifice of the IVC is associated with PFO, possibly by directing the IVC flow to PFO.

Wide-ranging clinical spectrum of paradoxical embolism.

The purpose of this review is to raise the index of suspicion for paradoxical embolism among generalists. The review is based solely on anecdotal reports compiled from EMBASE, MEDLINE, Googlescholar and Pubmed. Search terms were 'paradoxical embolism', 'pulmonary embolism' and 'pulmonary arteriovenous malformations'. What emerged was that right-to-left paradoxical embolism could occur with or without concurrent pulmonary embolism, and also with and without proof of the presence of an 'embolus-in-transit'. Potential sites of single or multiple systemic involvement included the central nervous system, the coronary circulation, renal arterial circulation, splenic circulation, the mesenteric circulation and the limbs. In many cases, the deep veins of the lower limbs were the source of thromboembolism. In other cases, thrombi originated from an atrial septal aneurysm, from a central venous line, from a haemodialysis-related arterio-venous shunt, from a popliteal vein aneurysm, internal jugular vein, superior vena cava, from a pulmonary arteriovenous malformation, from tricuspid valve endocarditis (with and without pulmonary embolism) and from the right atrium, respectively. Stroke was by far the commonest systemic manifestation of paradoxical embolism. Some strokes were attributable to pulmonary arteriovenous malformations with or without coexistence of intracardiac shunts. Clinicians should have a high index of suspicion for paradoxical embolism because of its time-sensitive dimension when it occurs in the context of involvement of the intracranial circulation, coronary circulation, mesenteric circulation, and peripheral limb circulation.

Concomitant pulmonary embolism and upper limb ischaemia as a first presentation of a patent foramen ovale.

A 78-year-old female patient presented to the emergency department with syncope and dyspnoea. The left arm appeared to be cold and radial pulse was not palpable. A CT scan of the chest and left arm with intravenous contrast displayed bilateral central pulmonary embolisms in combination with a left subclavian artery embolism and an atrial septal aneurysm. Transthoracic echocardiography identified a patent foramen ovale with right-to-left shunting confirming the diagnosis of paradoxical embolism. The patient was treated with anticoagulants. In a patient presenting with a combination of a pulmonary embolism and a peripheral arterial embolism, the clinician should consider a right-to-left shunt with paradoxical embolism. In line with this, when diagnosing a peripheral arterial embolism, a central venous origin should be considered. Furthermore, when diagnosing a pulmonary embolism or other forms of venous thromboembolism, the clinician should be aware of signs of a peripheral arterial embolism.